Memo

memo: Lang - C++ | Misc

Table of contents

Compiler

Switch g++ Versions

Update Alternatives

  1. Problems:

    1. CUDA requires g++ to be compatible

      The g++ needs to change version alongside CUDA version Switch.

  2. Supports:

    1. Change system-wide g++

  1. Actions:

    1. Install the target version of g++

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      sudo apt-get install g++-10 -y

    2. Install

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      sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/g++ g++ /usr/bin/g++-10 20

    3. Select the target version of g++

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      sudo update-alternatives --display g++
sudo update-alternatives --list g++
sudo update-alternatives --config g++

Docker Container for g++

auto

  1. Compiler will evaluate the expression and use the result’s type.

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    // "auto1.cpp"
#include <iostream>
#include <typeinfo>
using namespace std;

int main(){
    int a = 1, b = 2;
    auto s = a + b;   // compiler will compute a+b and assign the type of result to s.
    cout << "Sum = " << sum <<endl;
    cout << typeid(s).name() << endl;

    return 0; 
}

    Build: g++ auto1.cpp -o auto1

  2. Multiple variables followed by auto should be initialized with a common type.

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    auto i = 0, *p = &i;  // pointer variable p stores the address of i,
// And the type of i is deduced from the value 0,

auto* p = &i;    // ok

Reference:

  1. Codes from The auto Type Specifier in C++ - Neso Academy
  2. Placeholder type specifiers (since C++11) - cppreference

Vector

(2023-11-10)

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#include <vector>

void main(){
    std::vector<int> myVec;
    myVec = {1,2,3,4,5};

    for (int i:myVec)
        std::cout << i << std::endl;
}

  1. std::vector is a class template (class maker), from which the specific class is derived with additional specifications.

    • Template in C++ is like the parent class in Python to some extent: compile-time polymorphism v.s. runtime polymorphsim. But templates are not functions or classes.

    • Specifications follow the template name and are enclosed by angle brackets.

  2. A std::vector is a container for a sequence of objects.

  3. A std::vector’s definition doesn’t need number of elements, because it’s a dynamic array with adjustable size, achieved by allocating new memory and copying data as needed.

  4. Pass a customized type to std::vector<custom_type>:

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    #include <iostream>
#include <vector>

struct Vertex{
    float x,y,z;
};

// Overload the << operator for Vertex struct
std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& stream, const Vertex& v){
    stream << v.x << ", " << v.y << ", " << v.z;
    return stream;
}

int main(){
    std::vector<Vertex> vertices;
    vertices.push_back({1,2,3});
    vertices.push_back({4,5,6});

    // Range-based for loop
    // for (Vertex v : vertices)  // will copy each vertex
    for (const Vertex& v : vertices)  // reference won't copy
        std::cout << v << std::endl;

    // Delete the 2nd element
    vertices.erase(vertices.begin() + 1);

    for (int i=0; i < vertices.size(); i++)
        std::cout << vertices[i] << std::endl;

    // Clear the vector
    vertices.clear();    // size = 0
    std::cout << vertices.size() << std::endl;
}

Reference:

  1. The Vector Type in C++ - Youtube - Neso Academy
  2. Dynamic Arrays in C++ (std::vector) - Youtube - The Cherno
  3. vector insert() Function in C STL - GeeksforGeeks

Iterator

Ref:

  1. ITERATORS in C++ - The Cherno

Raw Function Pointer

A representation for a function with an alias. For example, myFunc(int i) is represented as: void (*alias)(int)

  1. A similar thing in Python:

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    norm = torch.nn.LayerNorm

myModel = nn.Sequential(
        nn.Linear(3,5),
        norm(5)
        )

    • The class name is assigned to a variable, which is an alias (reference). And objects are instantiated later by specifying arguments.

      The instantiation is deferred.

    • Funtion pointer stores a function’s address in the compiled binary code.

  2. In C++, to define a function pointer variable, its type can be deduced by auto:

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    #include<iostream>

void MyFunc(int a){
    std::cout << "Hello" << a << std::endl;
}

int main(){
    auto pFunc = MyFunc;  // No (), otherwise calling.
    pFunc(1);
}

  3. The “Function Pointer” type is void(*)(args). And a function pointer variable is void(*var_name)(args).

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    int main(){
    void(*pFunc)(int) = MyFunc;
    pFunc(1);
}

    And it can be rewritten as a type by typedef:

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    int main(){
    typedef void(*MyFunc_type)(int);
    MyFunc_type pFunc = MyFunc;
    pFunc(1);
}

  4. When passing a function to another function, the function pointer parameter should be defined as void (*func_name)(args_list):

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    #include <iostream>
#include <vector>

void PrintInt(int i){
    std::cout << i << std::endl;
}

void ForEach(const std::vector<int>& v, void(*func)(int) ){
    # Apply func to each element in the vector
    for (int i : v)
        func(i);
}

int main(){
    std::vector<int> myVec = {2,0,2,3};
    ForEach(myVec, PrintInt);
}

  5. For compactness, the function PrintInt can be written as a one-line (anonymous) lambda function :

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    void ForEach(const std::vector<int>& v, void(*func)(int) ){
    for (int i : v)
        func(i);
}

int main(){
    std::vector<int> myVec = {2,0,2,3};
    ForEach(myVec, [](int i){std::cout << i << std::endl;} );
}

    Pass an outside variable a into the lambda function:

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    #include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <functional>
#include <string>

void ForEach(const std::vector<int>& v, const std::function<void(int)>& func){
    for (int i : v)
        func(i);
}
int main(){
    std::vector<int> myVec = {1,3,5,6,0};
    std::string a = "Current element:";
    ForEach(myVec, [&a](int i){ std::cout << a << i << std::endl;});
}

    • [&a] captures the outside variable a by reference without copying data.

    • Output 
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      yi@yi:~/Downloads/Cpp_Study$ g++ function_pointer.cpp
yi@yi:~/Downloads/Cpp_Study$ ./a.out
Current element:1
Current element:3
Current element:5
Current element:6
Current element:0

Ref:

Lambda expression

(2023-11-11)

[](){}:

  1. Square brackets [] is for variables outside the scope of {} lambda function

    • [&] all variables are captures by references.
    • [=] all variables are captured by values.

  2. Parentheses () enclose parameter to be used in {} lambda function

  3. Curly braces {} enclose operations.

Usage:

  1. If there is a function pointer, lambda function can be in place of it.

Example using lambda expression as a bool:

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#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <algorithm>

int main(){
    std::vector<int> myVec = {2,0,5,4,3};
    
    auto it = std::find_if(myVec.begin(), myVec.end(), [&](int val){return val > 3;} );

    std::cout << *it << std::endl;  // Output: 5
}

  • std::find_if examins myVec to find the fisrt element that is larger than 3 and returns an iterator it.

  • Iterator object it is the address of the first element in the container. And it+1 points to the 2nd element.

    So, it needs to be dereferenced to get the value.

Ref:

  1. Lambdas in C++ - The Cherno
  2. Lambda expressions - cppreference
  3. std::find, std::find_if, std::find_if_not - cppreference.com

std::function

(2023-11-11)

A representation for a kind of callable objects, such as normal function, functor, lambda expression, struct.

  1. “Same kind” refers to having the same return type and input arguments, as indicated by the function signature.

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    // Normal function can be represented as a std::function:
void MyFunc(int x){ std::cout << x << std::endl; };
std::function<void(int)> f = MyFunc;

// Lambda expression is assigned to a variable:
std::function<void(int)> fl = [](int i){std::cout << i << std::endl;};

// Equivalent to a function pointer:
auto pf =  [](int i){std::cout << i << std::endl;};

  2. The std::function<void(int)> represents any callable object that has no return value and only one int input argument.

    Therefore, it can be used as the type for a formal parameter when defining a function that takes as input a specific kind of function.

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    #include <iostream>
#include <functional>
void funcsPrintNum(int x, std::function<void(int)> func){
    func(x);
}

int main(){
    auto myLambda = [](int i){ std::cout << i << std::endl; };
    funcsPrintNum(1, myLambda);
}

  3. A vector storing multiple callable objects that have an identical function signature.

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    #include <iostream>
#include <functional>
#include <vector>
void aNormalFunc(int i){ std::cout << i + 5 << std::endl;}

int main(){
    std::vector<std::function<void(int)>> vf;
    vf.push_back([m=5](int i){std::cout << m << i << std::endl;});
    vf.push_back(aNormalFunc);

    vf[0](1);    // Call the 1st function with the argument 1
    vf[1](4);    // Call the 2nd function
}
    • Output 
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      51
9

  4. Calling a function from a std::function is slower than calling it natively. This is the cost of unifying representation for callable objects with the same input and output.

Ref:

  1. C++ std::function Next Level Function Polymorphism - The Builder

Template

(2023-11-14)

  1. The template argument typename T (a type) will be deduced when compiling and the corresponding function will be created to link.

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    #include <iostream>
#include <string>

template <typename T>  // before the return type of the func
void Print(T value){
  std::cout << value << std::endl;
}
int main(){
  Print(5);
  Print(5.5f);
  Print("A string");
}

    • When calling a template in program, the teamplate argument <T> can be omitted as it can be deduced by compiler.

    • Output 
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      5
5.5
A string

  2. The following int N is required at compile time, because an array created on stack needs size known when compiling. And it can be deduced when evaluating the template:

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    template <typename T, int N>
class ArrayClass{
private:     // visible inside the class
    T m_Array[N];
public:      // visible outside the class
    int GetSize() const {return N;}
};

int main(){
    ArrayClass<int, 5> myArray;
    std::cout << myArray.GetSize() << std::endl;
}

Ref:

  1. Templates in C++ - YouTube - The Cherno

Class vs Struct

“Struct is the same as class.” – CLASSES vs STRUCTS in C++ - YouTube - The Cherno

Default members (without setting visibility) of a class are all private.

In contrast, members in a struct are all public by default.

  • Struct also can set members (variables and methods) to private.

  • Struct can do inheritance as well, but not common. Struct is often used to group variables.

doubt: Why does a struct can include itself? (2024-01-27) Not itself. fromChunk is a function and its return type is the stuct. The code is from 3DGS.

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struct GeometryState
	{
		size_t scan_size;
		float* depths;
		char* scanning_space;
		bool* clamped;
		int* internal_radii;
		float2* means2D;
		float* cov3D;
		float4* conic_opacity;
		float* rgb;
		uint32_t* point_offsets;
		uint32_t* tiles_touched;

		static GeometryState fromChunk(char*& chunk, size_t P);
	};

Bitwise Operator

(2023-11-14)

  1. ~

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    #include <iostream>
#include <bitset>

int main(){
  std::size_t alignment = 128;
  std::cout << std::bitset<32>(alignment) << std::endl;
  std::cout << std::bitset<32>(alignment-1) << std::endl;
  std::cout << std::bitset<32>( ~ (alignment-1)) << std::endl;
}

    Output:

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    00000000000000000000000010000000
00000000000000000000000001111111
11111111111111111111111110000000

    Ref:

#define

(2023-11-15)

  1. Short for a for loop

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    #define fori(x) for(int i=0; i<x; i++)

fori(20){
  ...
}

    Ref: Why use #define instead of a variable

  2. #define 100_000 won’t work. #define 100000 is ok.

Header files

(2023-11-15)

  1. Functions’ signature must be written in the file to use them.

    Those declarations can be stored in header files.

  2. The preprocess directive #include will copy and paste a header file to there.

  3. Header files can form a chain, whereas a potential probelm is repeated difinations. (e.g. structs need unique names.)

    • The header guide #pragma once marks a header file won’t be included multiple times into a single translation unit (cpp file).

    • Old fasion is wrapping the entire header file with #ifndef symbol and #endif

      (2024-06-03)

      • Include Guards

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        //x.h

#ifndef __X_H_INCLUDED__   // if x.h hasn't been included yet...
#define __X_H_INCLUDED__   // #define this so the compiler knows it has been included

class X { };

#endif

  4. Suffix .h is used to differentiate “C standard library” (<stdio.h>) and “C++ standard libray” (<iostream>)

  5. Angular brackets <fname> will search the “standard include directories” (of compiler) for the file named fname.

    While double qutoes "../myHeader.h" normaly enclose a relative path, although it can enclose a file that resides in “standard include directories” as well (e.g., "iostream").

Ref:

  1. C++ Header Files - The Cherno
  2. Source file inclusion - cppreference.com

(2024-05-13)

Ref: C/C++头文件里有什么, 什么是接口与实现分离, 为什么这么干? 代码知识 - 不停感叹的老林

  • 头文件的意义：多处声明，一处定义

(2024-06-03)

Ref: Headers and Includes: Why and How - C++ Articles - Disch (Found by DDG)

  1. Since each source file is compiled individually to object files (which are binary too) before linking them together, the header files are needed to make the function interface recognizable for the compiler, and keep the implementation individual.

    • Keeping each file self-contained facilitates making modifications.

      • As each source file is compiled separately, the implementation of a function is unknown in another source file. So the header file is a “messenger” between them by telling funcitons’ interface to each other.

        Thus, functions’ interface and their implementation are separated.

      • Spliting the program to multiple piece files instead of a single comprehensive file helps debugging and facilitate compilation (only compile the needed file).

    • The compiler compiles (translate) each source file into a binary (object file), and the linker finds function implementations, and connects the object files and precompiled libraries together. 0.5 — Introduction to the compiler, linker, and libraries

  2. #include is copy & paste during preprocessing.

    • Header files are pasted (#included) and not compiled, whereas source files are compiled and not included.

  3. Do not #include source files.

    Only #include the necessary things in header files.

  4. Try to avoid #include the full .h file:

    Do nothing ❮ Forward declare A ❮ #include “a.h”

    • Forward declared dependencies: class aClass;

    • The right way to include: “Forward declare when you can, don’t #include unless it’s necessary”

  5. Use a pointer or reference to an object aClass* a, instead of instantiating a full object: aClass a, and then use forward declaration: class aClass; to avoid the circular inclusion problem where using #include "a.h" is necessary.

  6. inline functions require their function body to exist in the every cpp file that calls them.

    Their function bodies can be put in a header file.

  7. The forward declaration for a template class requires typedef, which could cause inconvenience as all files that use the template class need to be modified manually when the template class changes.

    The solution is putting the typedef of the template class in a header file and then #include it in another header file.

(2024-06-04)

Ref: How a compiler knows from a header file, that a source file exists somewhere? - SO (Found in DDG)

  1. #include "myfile.h" has a broader searching scope than #include <stdio.h>

    The "" will search in the current working folder besides the predefined standard well-known directories.

  2. Including a header #include math.h but without linking the library libm.a into the executable binary, by specifying it in the gcc build command: -lm, the functions in libm.a can’t be called

    • Gcc convention: For a precompiled library: lib<name>.a, the argument to link it: -l<name>.

  3. -I and -L specify the additional searching paths to headers and libraries.

Ref: C/C++ Headers and Source Files: How Do They Work? - codeproject (Not accurate enough)

  1. Everything (function, struct, variable) in cpp needs a declaration before using it, so header files are pasted in the source file with #include.

    • Header files are declarations informing the compiler.

  2. Semicolon after the function signature indicates to the compiler that this is a function prototype declaration, rather than the definition.

  3. Compilation only process source files, as header files already have been pasted into source files.

Compiling & Linking

Compiling:

  1. Convert cpp files (translation units) to binary object file.

  2. Preprocess statements (directives) will be done when compiling.

    • #include just copy and paste to where it is.
    • #define replace symbol
    • #if 1 (or 0) and #endif to use a code snippest or not.

    Once all preprocess statements are finished, the preprocessed “full” code will be tranformed to an object file

  3. Multiple cpp files can be combined into a single cpp file by #include, and then only one translation unit will be generated.

    However, if every cpp file doesn’t include others, each cpp file will have an translation unit.

    Each translation unit yields a object file

  4. constant folding: constant arithmetics will be solved at compile time, such that there is only 1 asm instruction: put a number into a register.

Ref: How the C++ Compiler Works

Linking:

  1. Find the binary code of functions, symbols and entry point main, according to their “function signatures”, and then form a executable file.

    • Compiling is to preprocess and generate object file.
    • Linking is organizing binary code to a executable fiel.
    • Build = Compiling + Linking

  2. Link error and compile error

    Error code starts with “LNK” means it’s an linking error:

    • Function signature mismatch with the definition (name, return type, parameters), thus the binary code can’t be found: LNK2019 Unresolve externel symbol

    • No entry point definition (e.g., main()) for Application(.exe).

    • Duplicate symbols (function signature, variables) are found in the project’s obj files. LNK1169 One or more funcname defined symbols found

    • Even if a function isn’t called by main(), it could be called in other cpp files.

      Therefore, linker also needs to link those “uncalled” functions, unless it has static keysword representing it will only be called internally in the cpp file it exists.

    Error code starts with “C” means it’s an compiling error:

    • Syntax errors, e.g., missing ; (C2143)
    • No declaration or definition for functions used in a cpp file.
    • Multiple definitions in a single file.

  3. Multiple definition if a function is defined in a header file without static or inline limitation, because #include is just pasting header file.

    “Log.h”:

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    #pragma once
#include <iostream>
void Log(const char* x){
  std::cout << x << std::endl;
}

    “Log.cpp”

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    #include "Log.h" // Log definition will be here
void InitLog(){
  Log("Initialization");
}

    “main.cpp”

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    #include "Log.h" // Log definition will be here
int Multiply(int& a, int& b){
  Log("Multiplication:");
  return a*b;
}
int main(){
  int c = Multiply(5, 2);
}

    There won’t be compiling error, since each cpp file knows functions to be used. But this project cannot be linked since there two Log function with the same signature, and the linker don’t know which one should be used.

    There are 3 soulutions:

    1. static will limit the function used only in the file it resides in and won’t be visible to any other obj files.

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      static void Log(const char* x){
  std::cout << x << std::endl;
}

      That means even though “Log.cpp” and “main.cpp” both have the definition of void Log(const char*), they use their own Log. The linker won’t be confused.

    2. inline will replace the calls of the function with its body:

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      inline void Log(const char* x){
  std::cout << x << std::endl;
}

    3. Define the function in one of translation units. And header file only contain declarations.

      Move the definition into “Log.cpp”:

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      void Log(const char* x){
  std::cout << x << std::endl;
}

Ref: How the C++ Linker Works - The Cherno

(2024-06-04)

How C++ Works: Understanding Compilation | Toptal (Found in DDG)

  1. Preprocess: Copy/paste header files to source files:

    “test-compile.cpp”

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    #include <iostream>
int main(int argc, char* argv[] ){
    std::cout << "Hello" << std::endl;}

    Add -E option to stop the compiler after preprocessing: (Found by perplexity)

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    gcc -E test-compile.cpp -o test-compile.ii
wc test-compile.ii
    • The preprocessing and compiling in c++ is similar to c lang.

  2. Compile each source file separately to generate a object file: (sec2)

    Given a c file: “sum.c”:

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    int sumI(int a, int b){ return a+b;}
float sumF(float a, float b){return a+b;}

    • -c stops the compiler after compiling before linking. manual (SO)

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      yi@Alien:~/Downloads/Cpp_Study$ gcc -c test_compile.cpp -o sum.o

    • nm lists symbols from object files.

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      yi@Alien:~/Downloads/Cpp_Study$ nm sum.o
0000000000000018 T _Z4sumFff
0000000000000000 T _Z4sumIii

      • No symbol is imported. Two symbols are exported as part of the .text segment T. (Don’t understand)

      • _Z4sumFff and _Z4sumIii are the names used by other source files calling the 2 functions.

    • #include header files is declaring the 2 functions

  3. Mix calling C and C++ functions

    • Function symbols in cpp enable the feature of overload when several functions have the same name but different input arguments.

  4. Link all the object files to generte a binary file.

(2024-06-06)

  • Compile 的中文翻译：编译 = 翻译 + 编纂。编纂的意思是把多个文件放到一起。

    pile 是“一摞”, compile 是把一摞文件放到一起。

Find Next MSB

(2023-11-17)

Find the next-highest bit of the MSB (Most Significant Bit)

  1. Right shift:

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    #include <iostream>
#include <bitset>
int main(){
  uint16_t x = 32767;    // 01111111_11111111
  std::cout << (x >> 16) << std::endl;   // 0
  std::cout << (x >> 12) << std::endl;   // 0000000_0000111
}

Parse Args

(2023-11-03)

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#include <iostream>

int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
    std::cout << "Number of input arguments: " << argc << std::endl;

    for (int i = 0; i <= argc-1; i++) {
        std::cout << argv[i] << "\n";
    }
    return 0;
}

Scope Resolution

(2024-02-01)

  1. :: : Scope resolution operator in C++ - GeeksforGeeks

    • Differentiate global and locatl variables with the same name;
    • Identify classes with the same name in different namespace.
    • Define a member function outside the class
    • Access a class’s static member
    • Distinguish members with the same name reside in multiple classes with inheritances.
    • Refer to nesting class.

  2. . is used for member of object. Member access operators - cppreference

  3. a->b, where a is a pointer, equals to ((*a).b). In contrast, a.b where a is an object. member access operators - C++ Forum

Type Casting

(2024-02-03)

  • (uint32_t) is forceful casting in terms of the bits reading. whereas static_cast<uint32_t> cannot be applied on data with bits interpretion mismatched. Type conversions and type safety - Microsoft Learn

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    #include <iostream>
int main(){
    float depth = 15.7;
    std::cout << (uint32_t)depth;  // 15
    std::cout << static_cast<uint32_t>(depth); // 15
    std::cout << reinterpret_cast<uint32_t>(depth); //error
}

Files Process

Save location

(2024-06-26)

  • Use command arguments to specify saving locations.

    Ref:

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    #include <filesystem>

// ... (rest of the code)

int main(int argc, char** argv) {

  std::filesystem::path output_dir;
  if (arg_parser.get<std::string>("--output-dir") == "-") {
    output_dir = std::filesystem::current_path();
  } else {
    output_dir = arg_parser.get<std::string>("--output-dir");
  }
  if (!std::filesystem::exists(output_dir)) {
      std::filesystem::create_directories(output_dir);
  }
  std::filesystem::path output_file = output_dir / "upsampled_cloud.pcd";
  pcl::io::savePCDFile(output_file.string(), *output_cloud);
}

Filename format

(2024-06-26)

  • Use regex

    Question:

    I want to make up a filename with the arg_parser.get<std::string>("--cloudfile"), rather than hardcode “upsampled_cloud.pcd”.

    For example, if the –cloudfile is “/home/yi/Downloads/CasMVSNet_pl-comments/results/dtu/image_ref/scan1/points3d.ply”, I want the filename to be “scan001_l3.ply”. Another example: If the –cloudfile is “/home/yi/Downloads/CasMVSNet_pl-comments/results/dtu/image_ref/scan4/points3d.ply”, I want the filename to be “scan004_l3.ply”. Another example: If the –cloudfile is “/home/yi/Downloads/CasMVSNet_pl-comments/results/dtu/image_ref/scan118/points3d.ply”, I want the filename to be “scan118_l3.ply”. How to write code?

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    #include <filesystem>
#include <string>
#include <regex>

int main(int argc, char** argv) {

  std::string input_filepath = arg_parser.get<std::string>("--cloudfile");
  // Use regex to extract the scan number
  std::regex scan_regex(R"(scan(\d+)/points3d.ply)");
  std::smatch match;
  std::string scan_number;
  if (std::regex_search(input_filepath, match, scan_regex)) {
      scan_number = match[1].str();

      // Pad the scan number with zeros
      std::ostringstream padded_num;
      padded_num << std::setw(3) << std::setfill('0') << std::stoi(scan_number);
      scan_number = padded_num.str();
  } else {
      // If no scan number found, use a default
      scan_number = "---";
  }
  // Construct the new filename
  std::string output_filename = "scan" + scan_number + "_l3.ply";
}

    • R"()" means raw string which doesn’t need \ converting some characters to be escape characters.

      The regex given by chatGPT4o is scan_regex("scan(\\d+)/points3d\\.ply"), which works either.

    Ref:

Static

Issues:

Notes:

(2024-12-02)

  1. Five places essentially perform 3 effects

    • References: {{{

      1. 5分钟讲透C++的static（5分钟实在讲不完，超时了很抱歉【手动狗头】）- bilibili - 打洞哥不打洞

    • Supports:

      (2025-06-27T13:17)

      1. 使类成员全局唯一，限制一个全局变量或一个普通函数只在本文件内生效，延长局部变量的生命周期 r1-打洞哥

        • 如果类的一个成员变量是静态的，那么这个变量与类挂钩，而不与实例化出来的对象挂钩； 如果该成员变量被修改，所有对象的该变量都会改变。 可以通过类名访问这个成员变量

        • 如果类的一个成员函数是静态的，那这个成员函数是唯一的，是被所有对象共享的，所有对象的这个成员函数都对应同一个函数。 就可以通过类找到这个成员函数。

          “通过类找到的成员函数” 与一个普通函数就类似了：都是只需用函数名就可以调用函数

        • 函数是一个代码段的首地址，调用函数时会跳转到那个地址。 如果类的一个成员函数是非静态的，不同对象的该成员函数对应的也是 同一个地址， 但是不同对象调用该成员函数时，有一个传入的隐含参数不同：该对象的 this 指针 （不同对象的 this 不同）。

          换句话说，调用非静态成员函数时，需要指定对象的指针，不然不知道是哪个对象。

        • 对于 不在类中的变量，即全局变量，如果需要在另一个文件中使用它，需要在那个文件中声明它时，用 extern 修饰。 在链接时，使用的是同一个变量。

          如果两个文件中有两个相同名字的全局变量，并且它们都被用 static 修饰，它们在链接时，不会是同一个变量， 而是对应不同的变量。

        • 对于一个普通函数，只能在当前文件生效，若要在其他文件中使用它，需要 include 头文件（即声明它）

        • 在函数内部定义的变量是局部变量，如果不用 static 修饰，则此局部变量会在 函数结束后释放。 下一次调用函数时，会重新创建局部变量。 如果使用了 static 修饰，创建后直到 程序结束才释放，所以当再次运行到创建语句时， 发现该变量已经存在，便不会再次创建，所以它可以持续被修改

  1. Static Variables on Memory

Conditional Compilation

  1. Pre-processor Directives

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